Note: This is a lightly editorialized review of Krawczyk Joanna, "Shugendo. Droga górskiej ascezy", 2006. (Title translates to: "Shugendo. Path of mountain ascetism) and many connections to Shugendo that one very diligent anon found and posted as multiple long-form posts on https://warosu.org/jp/thread/48253130. I acquired permission to archive these with slight editorialization to make it more of an article. There are even more potential connections to Shugendo in Touhou than this anon found, at least the Mt. Haku Girl lore and Reimu's bomb in HRTP and SoEW directly referencing the kuji-in mantra. There might very well be even more to be found. Nevertheless, this is an extremely accomplished work. Enjoy!
- Emissary
Shugendo – Path of Mountain Ascetism
Letters are clay,
Which under cleansing thought-fire
Turn into bricks.
With those, I build another wall.
So, what's there to be said on Shugendō?
Let start with history. There two parts to it, the story of En no Ozunu, which serve as a spiritual background, and later creation of Shugendō as a distinct movement.
En no Gyōja was born in a family that was one of the last clans belonging to Tsuchigumo people after Japanese emperors' conquests. It was near Mount Katsuragi, Nara prefecture, during Emperor Jomei, in 634. His mother, after long prayers for a child, had a dream, during which vajra entered her mouth. Later, when En no Ozunu was born with a flower in hand, there were dōji (attendants or messengers, like Kongara is to Fudō Myōō) and other deities accompanying the birth with music and rituals. The boy was growing and acting differently from his peers, playing alone and doing stuff like making Buddha's heads out of mud or writing in Sanskrit without anyone ever teaching him that. As a teenager, he started climbing the mountains and after getting under a waterfall one day he began his ascetic practices. En no Ozunu rejected becoming a monk, continuing his mountaineer pilgrimages, but he nonetheless learned many spells from Buddhists.
He met many deities, he practiced asceticism and chanted sutras, he grew in power, performed miracles, healings and exorcisms. One of the most important of those events was in 674, on Mount Oomine, where En no Gyōja wanted to find a deity that will help with lessening suffering among people. First appeared Benzaiten, then Jizō, but both were rejected as not strict and terrifying enough. The third that appeared was Zaō Gongen, which was accepted as a strong protector of Buddhism by En no Ozuno.
He was becoming quite famous and attracting students, but En no Ozunu wasn't focused on teaching them. This turned into problem, when one of his students grew disdainful of him and later became an important political figure in imperial court. When En no Gyōja tried to built a bridge between two mountains, to make the passage safer, spirits employed by him were constantly interrupted in their task by kami Hitokotonushi. En no Ozuno bounded the kami with a spell, to stop its meddling. But the kami possessed an oracle, claiming that En no Gyōja is dangerous for the whole country and the old student quickly seized the chance to punish his old master. Soldiers sent for this task couldn't catch En no Ozunu, so they instead kidnapped his mother, after which the ascetic gave up. He was exiled to Oojima Island, but thanks to the ability of flying on a cloud, he kept moving around Japan each night, returning at dawn.
After few years, an unsuccessful execution, terrible omens and prophetic dreams given to the very Emperor Mommu, En no Gyōja was pardoned. He returned, made few last rites, miniaturised his mother, when she wanted to stay with him, hopped on cloud and left Japan in 701, proclaiming that he will stay as an immortal hermit. He was seen later many times by travelers, mostly in China, but sometimes in Japan. He was even sometimes seen as being buried, before appearing somewhere else. Allegedly, those deaths and reappearances were tied to Taoist practice of shikaisen, which should be well known on this board.
There are many more details regarding En no Ozuno's deeds and meetings, but the above are the most important parts, from which you can see that his legend is mostly related to Buddhism, with Taoism's influences. Shinto aspects are very sparse, if not non-existent.
Now, the Shugendō itself. Between cult of mountains in shamanistic Shinto, before it met with Buddhism or even Taoism, then later hermits practicing in mountain ranges far from other humans, and finally with advent of esoteric Buddhism, for which mountains are important, sacred places, there were always people going to mountains for mystical purposes, looking to get closer with the divine and get mystical powers as a result. After En no Ozunu's life, those who followed his footsteps were also among mountain ascetics, becoming a popular school of thought or group.
During Insei part of Heian period cloistered emperors usually performed many mountain pilgrimages after their abdication. This practice caught up with nobility and growing warrior class as well. Mountain pilgrimage required a guide, which obviously guided through peeks, and an attendant, called oshi, which dealt with pilgrims' lodgings and religious ceremonies. Oshi were usually Buddhist monks, while guides either were either individuals tied to a particular temple, 'secular' people that were unbounded eremites or Taoists, or finally guides-ascetics, shugen sendatsu, who were Shugendō practitioners at the right level of initiation. Pilgrims were the main source of income, while after some time esoteric Buddhists dominated attendant roles and Shugendō ascetics dominated guide roles. It was only natural that those two connected with each other more.
In 1100, from hands of Emperor Shirakawa, his guide, monk Zōyo, was given Shōgoin temple, in Kioto. The temple belonged to tendai sect and as time progressed, was more and more responsible in deciding who could work as a guide to Kumano Region. Shugendō practitioners, Yamabushi, who aligned with Shōgoin and tendai sect, created honzahna, "main mountain", one of the big strands of Shugendō. The other one, tōzahna "proper mountain", came from other yamabushi, who by 15th century aligned themself with shingon sect of esoteric Buddhism.
There are differences between those two, for instance honzahna yamabushi are wearing characteristic Shugendō garments only during travels, otherwise having tendai garments, while tōzahna keep their outfits for all occasions; the most important mountain pilgrimage with 75 stations, which was originally not for secular folk, but only for those within the movement, goes in reversed order; Honzahna believes that En no Gyōja is a spiritual creator of movement and Zōyo was reformer that created rules and structure, while tōzahna believes that monk Shōbo, who was given a spiritual seal from En no Gyōja, created their strand. But despite those and other differences, both strands have more in common then less.
Shugendō practicioners are pursuing enlightenment not only in this very life, like in esoteric Buddhism, but in this very body. Mystical powers, derived from ascetic training, are not only byproduct, but in a way goal. They are later used to do good to other people, with healing and exorcisms being most common services offered to common folk. This is also why yamabushi were accepted to the point where they were often married and had quite a normal life outside mountains. There is little to no information at all about yamabushi who weren't tied to either of big strands.
During Meiji, when Shugendō was outlawed in 1872, due to being inherently syncretical, yamabushi were forced to become either secular people, or Buddhist monks. It was again allowed in 1882, but the political climate still was hostile. It was only after 1945 that Shugendō could continue properly and that in practice meant two things: first, many of teachings and rituals' details were lost; second, only the biggest schools of thought could survive such long period of suppression. Therefore to this day Shugendō is basically honzahna and tōzahna, with some variety within them, that bears no greater bearing.
Doctrine, deities, rituals
"Touhou?", you may ask. And I will answer, not only this, but more, but first , little bit more about doctrine, deities and rituals. Shugendō practitioners are trying to achieve enlightenment in this very body, with supernatural powers that follow with it. It is done via practicing rituals and asceticism, with those powers later used to help other, suffering people, which also brings closer to enlightenment.
Shugendō believes that there are two planes of reality, in which all Buddhist transmigration paths are roughly contained: one for humans and other mundane creatures, and the second for supernatural, in which spirits reside. Those spirits are roughly in three categories:
1. Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Myōō (Wisdom Kings), important Kami, which are powerful and venerated across many places;
2. Attendants of the above, local Kami, individual guardian spirits, which are of less importance then the above category, but still can be called upon;
3. Evil spirits of various kinds, which are also responsible for all sufferings in this world;
interestingly, yamabushi, via proper rituals and personal power can defeat them and move them forcefully to the second category; this reminds me of Tibetan Buddhism.
The most important works for Shugendō are two mandalas. The first is Taizōkai, Womb Realm, derived from Mahāvairocana-sutra, which represents motherly attitude, as if to a child inside womb, of Dainichi Nyorai towards all people. The second is Kongōkai, Diamond Realm, derived from Vajraśekhara-sūtra, which is about Dainichi Nyorai's wisdom that cuts human imperfections like a diamond blade. Both sutras are also important, together with others, like Lotus Sutra, for instance. There are also chants and spells of various Myōō, mostly Fudō, but not only, and Taoist prayers, mostly taken from Ge Hong's "Baopu zi".
In terms of deities of reverence, the highest figure is Dainichi Nyorai, Mahāvairocana Buddha, for whom Amaterasu is supposed to be gongen (both are associated with sun). However, the main figure is rather Fudō Myōō, who doubles as Dainichi Nyorai manifestation or attendant. He comes from vedic Acalanātha, who is theorised by author, in virtue of his name ("Immovable Lord"), to be a deity of earth or mountains at the beginning of his divine career. This would make his ties with Shugendō an interesting circle in history. Fudō represents fatherly love of Dainichi Nyourai to humans, wrathfully dealings with obstacles to enlightenment on practitioners ways. He is also tied to wisdom, exorcisms, and often called during fire ceremonies (goma).
The final figure that is very important for Shugendō is Zaō Gongen, who is a deity of important Mount Kimpusen and a chosen protector by En no Gyōja. It's somewhat cryptic figure. He's supposed to be a gongen, but it isn't obvious of whom (one text, "Dōkeishōnen meidoki", puts Zaō as a gongen of Siddhartha Gautama), moreover he doesn't appear to be a kami at any point, being always a Buddhist figure that was put as Kimpusen deity by En no Ozunu. He also shares much symbolism and function with Wisdom Kings, as a wrathful wielder of diamond blade in right hand and sword mudra made with his left hand.
Shugendō also revere also standard fare of esoteric Buddhism, with various manifestations of Bodhisattva Kannon, Benzaiten, Four Heavenly Kings, other Myōō like Aizen Myōō or Kujaku Myōō, and others. Yamabushi also pray to kami and take part in Shinto matsuris, but it is much less codified.
The biggest rituals are mountain pilgrimages, of the kind reserved only for yamabushi, with various routes. All of them are coupled with ascetic training during the travel, from which the most standard are suigyō (standing under cold mountain waterfalls for extend period of time), that on one hand is related to misogi and retain purification aspect of it, while also is a practice towards bringing out "inner warm"; proper fasting, which includes abstinence from meat (Shinto and Buddhism derived), from salt, from boiled meals (both derived from some older, shamanistic traditions), and abstinence from "five grains", rice, wheat, millet, barley and haricot (derived from Taoism); the final ascetic practice during travels is recitation of spells and sutras.
Some of those mountain pilgrimages also include additional rituals, with jikkai shugyō, pilgrimage of ten worlds (Six Realms of transmigration paths and four holy states), having a special practice for each world, for instance. As initiates complete those inner-movement pilgrimages, they attain ranks, power and wisdom, allowing them to guide other yamabushi and secular people on mountain travels.
The other important rituals are aforementioned fire ceremonies, goma. During those practitioners stack wooden boards in gomadan, an altar that resembles a well, light them on fire, then during the burning prayers are made; votive offerings are often burned as well. Goma are held in many Hindu-derived religions, appearing also in esoteric Buddhism in Japan. However, Shugendō has a distinction of being the only one performing saitō goma. Most goma are done within a temple, with the shape of gomadan being tied to a type of prayer held during particular goma. Saitō goma are done outside of temple, with gomadan being much bigger then in any other ceremony and in circular shape. Saitō goma are often held during pilgrimages' end.
Shugendō has also distinct way of having an oracle, yorigitō. A child or teenager is chosen as a medium, cleansed in ritual manner, often under waterfall, then he puts on a blindfold and the cap usually put on Buddhist statues, sits in front of a depiction of deity and is given gohei. The crowd around brings in proper noise and the medium falls in a trance, considered hosting spirit. This spirit is asked who it is, then asked further questions regarding the matter yamabushi are interested in. Once questioning is done, gohei is taken away and the trance is interrupted via pouring cold water on medium. What is interesting, the practice is supposedly derived from En no Ozunu's treatment of Hitokotonushi. In legend they were at odds, here however the practice is beneficial to yamabushi at least. It does bring to mind many other parallels, in which opposing spirits become over time allied, if only under proper circumstances, with both Matarajin and Tengu being examples.
There are rituals taken straight from Taoism, with things like predicting an auspicious day and direction, and some exorcisms, like kuji, nine-signs ceremonies derived from from Baopu zi, in which the prayer (chinese) "lin bing dou zhe jie chen lie zai qian" is made from nine signs in order to protect from evil forces.
Shugendō practitioners take part in Shinto matsuris, supposedly with those related to Sun, Moon and Stars being the most important. During stars-related matsuri yamabushi revere the North Star and make astrological auguries.
Overall, with most other rituals, the common theme is first identifying with a deity or housing it in yourself, most often Fudō Myōō, which gives either protection from evil forces, or gives the powers of that deity to yamabushi. Thanks to identification yamabushi can get the knowledge, what spirit is exactly responsible for troubles, which then allows yamabushi to engage it and defeat it.
Connections to Touhou
Starting with the most straightforward thing, Kongara (or Konngara, as it is better known from HRtP). In the book I've read not much more then what you can find on Touhou wiki was said. Kongara is Fudō Myōō dōji, an attendant, together with Seitak dōji. Both of them are a part of Eight Great Attendants, Hachidai dōji, who respond to Fudō Myōō and Bodhisattva Manju. All of those dōji are originally young men, under year of 20. Rarely they are called upon in some rituals, but nothing specific is said about situations in which such invocations happen. With most prayers and spells in Shugendō going straight for Fudō Myōō, it is little wonder that much less powerful attendants aren't in limelight.
Now the thing that was the most interesting for me: Tengu. Surprisingly, nothing. At least in a direct manner. And this is despite youkai like Kitsune or Tanuki being mentioned as possible spirits that are exorcised from humans or repelled by yamabushi. There are however few things worth mentioning.
The first is once again Fudō Myōō. His depictions are obviously full of symbolism, as it is common in religious arts. His dark blue skin represents virtue of compassion, the diamond stone (by some interpretations taken as himalayas, which is then used as further proof of Acalanātha's origin as a mountain deity) he stands upon represents virtue of equanimity, and finally the wall of flames behind Fudō represent his virtue of wisdom, the most important one for a Wisdom King. This wall of flame is called in Japan as either kaenkō, 'flame's light', or karuraen, 'Garuda flame', latter stemming from the fact that Garuda birds can be seen in the flames in some of depictions. Garuda is/are being(s) that originate from Hindu mythology, in which Garuda is a bird deity and the mount of Vishnu. Later, Garuda (now plural) became a part of Buddhism, as snake-eating bird spirits fighting with snake spirits (Sanskrit 'nāga', Japanese 'ryū', which later turns to meaning 'dragon' as well). Both of them belong to Tenryūhachibu, Eight Legions of Devas and Nāgas, which are eight types of spirits that were converted by Siddhartha Gautama to Buddhism and became protectors of it, according to some Buddhist schools' cannons, including esoteric ones. Shugendō also recognises them.
Sometimes there are theories that Tengu stem from Garuda, brought by Buddhists. In the floating fighters Byakuren has a move and a spellcard referencing Garuda. However, if one looks closely at various materials, Tengu (or at least Aya) seem to be rather not in-the-known regarding Buddhism. Per DS, Spellcard 12-5, Syncretism "Manifestation of Mahavairocana":
Huh. This is that 'manifestation theory', isn't it?
So this is why I saw that cosplay with Amaterasu dressed up as Mahavairocana?
I don't know much about Buddhist temples, so that really helps me out.
-Aya
I, like, don't really get it, but it's totally bright!
This divinity is on the same wavelength as the sun.
So basically, it means all my photos are backlit. This god is my enemy!
-Hatate
There is also LE, and Aya's scenario in HSiFS before fighting with Okina:
Impairments... a secret god... Oh, I remember now!
Our ancestors, the people of impairments, split into two groups. One settled in the mountains and became Tengu.
The other hid behind buddhas, living in human settlements.
So while this is a huge leap, I think that ZUN is not really going with "adapted Garuda" angle for Tengu for some reason.
What else there is? Tengu are often depicted with some garments that are also used by yamabushi. The whole yamabushi outfit, with each piece of it, has symbolical meaning to it. Those clothes draw from aforementioned Womb Realm and Diamond Realm mandalas. Quite a lot of this symbolism corresponds to amniotic sac and umbilical cord, which is interesting in itself. I know that in many cultures amniotic sac has a spiritual meaning. At the very least, in Slavic and Turkic folklore babies born with amniotic sac intact were considered born with magical potential. They were also often considered to have another soul in them, evil/troublesome one, that didn't leave the body after death, instead turning the corpse into ubyr/upyr/striga/wieszcz/vampyr/vrykolakas. From those stories the later vampires, as known in western Europe, were derived. I am sure there are parallels to draw here with more careful studies. But back to Tengu.
Tengu, especially in Touhou, have only a vestige of yamabushi outfit. The one thing all Tengu share with yamabushi is tokin cap. In Shugendō, that cap is always black and put rather on forehead then on the top of head. The base is circular, with higher parts being twelve triangles put in a sort of flat pyramid. Tied to Buddha Dainichi Nyorai, twelve triangles represent the twelve-linked chain of causation. Six of those triangles on left also refer to unenlightened beings still in samsara, while six on right refer to enlightened beings, together symbolising unity of sacred and profane, of those on path to Buddha-hood and those that are not. Yamabushi wear tokin as a way to protect their minds from influence of evil spirits. For some it could remind of phylacteries, I guess. Tengu' tokin caps aren't close in design or method of wearing however, as one could see.
Some Tengu (not Hatate, but Aya and Momiji from time to time and Megumu in all her appearances) have those fluffy pompoms. Those are also part of yamabushi outfit, although they aren't attached to tokin, shirt or cape. Instead, those pompoms, called fusa, are part of yuigesa or fudōgesa, ceremonial sash. Yuigesa in itself has various interpretations: for some it ties yamabushi wearing it with sacred, especially Fudō Myōō (from which alternative name is derived), others say it represents umbilical cord with which En no Ozunu tied his miniaturised mother to his arm, finally some say it is apotropaic, hardened amniotic sac protecting yamabushi from misfortune. There is further symbolism regarding the shape and length of that sash, but as it doesn't appear on any Tengu, I'll skip it for now. Back to pompoms, their color represent the rank of yamabushi. There are differences between honzhana and tōzahna in their use, and nowadays there are multiple different colors used, but traditionally, at least in honzhana school adepts wore black fusa, symbolising six transmigration paths, while those that could be guides for pilgrims wore white fusa, symbolising six virtues of Bodhisattva.
Tengu also wear white, which is not without some merit: in the Grimoire of Marisa, there is a following comment on Aya's Crossroad Sign "Crossroads of Heaven", which on hard turns into Blockade Sign "Advent of the Divine Grandson", directly referencing Kojiki's fragment:
This danmaku has a pretty strong "dead end" vibe to it, but if you look closely, there's a path right in the middle. Guiding people is part of a tengu's duty, so that's pretty fitting.
On many occasions ZUN puts a connection between Tengu and Sarutahiko, calling that kami as Tengu's god even, according to SoPM article on Seiga and Christmas. Sarutahiko's most well-known deed is when he met Ninigi's (Amaterasu's grandson and progenitor of Japanese emperors) procession descending on earth and after talk with Ame no Ozume he became the mountain guide for the heavenly kami. I think Marisa's comment stem mostly from folklore, but this link with both Shinto mythology and with Shugendō is certainly interesting. Once again, one has to wonder how much of obscure lore ZUN actually knows.
Yamabushi has much more clothes then this, however it is hard to say whether any other piece is used or not. Apparently Shugendō is open for women nowadays and from the text it's unclear if it was open for them in the past or not. Women are not permitted to enter Mount Ōmine, which is a part of the most important pilgrimage in Shugendō, due to taboo of blood, but there were no further mentions of any distinctions. If they have somewhat differently shaped garments, I can't tell. If not, then the above exhausts this line of similarities between Shugendō and Tengu in Touhou.
Finally, there is a cryptic line in the text, which I'll post translated:
The yamabushi themself, in common folk' opinion, are half-monks, half-lay men, and, like goblins or demons (akuma), liminal beings (kyōkaitekinasonzai) of half-humane, half-divine nature.
I cannot be sure, since there is no annotation, unlike with further terms, but those 'goblins' are probably the only mention of Tengu in the whole book. The author sources this claim to Miyake H. "Shugendō, sono rekishi to shugen", 2001, but doesn't dwell on it much. I know that only later in this century authors, at least in my country, went from 'goblins' to 'Tengu', but it still might refer to some other creatures. But, consider again Aya's quote from HSiFS to Okina about Tengu, how they came from "ancestors... that split into two groups." There are Tengu origins based off Buddhist monks falling from path to enlightenment that I've mentioned in thee previous thread, but this origin is unlikely used by ZUN due to the same reason as Garuda. I currently don't know about any other folk origins of Tengu that would position them as 'half-humane', but maybe there is something out there?
That would wrap up Tengu in Touhou and Shugendō. Not much, ultimately. So is Shugendō unused by ZUN? Well, there is another thing elsewhere in Touhou, which could be worthwhile to consider.
And that other place is the nine-tailed shikigami, Yakumo Ran. It's never said directly and I doubt that ZUN will ever state this outright, but there is something strange going on when one looks at Ran's spellcards. Consider for a moment that Shugendō draws first and foremost from esoteric Buddhism, then from Taoism and Shinto, finally adding some things unique to it. Ran is a shikigami and has her own in Chen, using her as a spellcard in Shikigami "Chen". Shikigami are from Onmyōdō, which is mostly derived from Taoism.
In Shikigami "Senko Thoughtful Meditation", Shiki Brilliance "Kitsune-Tanuki Youkai Laser" and "Kokkuri-san's Contract" there are more or less overt references to kitsune, which isn't surprising by any means considering that Ran is one of them, but through this a link with Shinto Inari can be made. While tenuous at first, consulting the Grimoire of Marisa returns such comment regarding "Kokkuri-san's Contract":
I had her tell me who Kokkuri-san was afterwards.
It's a fox spirit, apparently, but it gets all full of itself and starts pretending to be Inari-san when humans call upon it. But it's a pretty mischievous spirit, so as soon as it gets bored, it amuses itself by frightening the humans instead.
Additionally, Inari is mentioned in the book I've read as one of the kami that Shugendō goma rituals are sometimes made to.
Many Ran's spellcards are referencing Buddhism. Shikigami "Banquet of the Twelve General Gods" refers to twelve protectors of Medicine Buddha. Shiki Shot "Ultimate Buddhist" speaks for itself, both in name and usage of manji. Odaishi-sama from Esoteric Sign "Odaishi-sama's Secret Key" is one of Kukai's titles, monk who introduced shingon school of esoteric Buddhism. Shikigami "Channeling Dakiniten" is referencing deity who is both tied with Inari and Iizuna-Gongen. The latter appears directly in Illusion God "Descent of Iizuna-Gongen". For those, to whom this looks familiar, but they can't put their finger on why, Iizunamaru Megumu is Iizuna-Gongen. This gongen of Jizō is also revered by some Shugendō practitioners.
And this brings me to three last spellcards. Superhuman "Soaring En no Ozunu" mentions Shugendō's spiritual progenitor explicitly, with a comment from tGoM
:
A technique that dramatically raises one's physical capabilities, it seems. Has a very "now this is a youkai!" feel to it.
En no Ozunu was a magician from a very, very long time ago. An ancient senior of mine.
They say he could fly through the sky and used a bunch of different slaves. This Spell Card of Ran's is made in his image, she says; it's not actually summoning the guy. So she can boost her physical capabilities just by picturing him? Bah, friggin' youkai.
While En no Ozunu became a folk hero and he is important beyond Shugendō, there are few interesting things to consider. Remember how in earlier I said that with most rituals, the common theme is first identifying with a deity or housing it in yourself? 'By picturing him' could work as 'identifying with'. Furthermore, aforementioned "Channeling Dakiniten" also would work as such, or perhaps as 'housing it in yourself'. Perhaps as a side note, both spellcards have Ran being quite mobile.
Then there is Shikigami "Protection of Zenki and Goki", which in some stories refers to two of many Abe no Seimei's shikigami, but just as often refers to two oni En no Ozunu bound in mountains, when they've caused too much trouble to travelers. Later En no Gyōja cleaned them and made them his servants to gather water and wood. Zenki is a red, male oni, often shown with an axe in hand and mouth in 'un' syllable. Goki is a blue, female oni with water jug and mouth in 'a' syllable. When En no Ozunu was leaving Japan, he told both oni that they can't go with him. Instead, he ordered them to protect pilgrims to Mount Ōmine. Both oni had children later, Zenki's were serving yamabushi in Yoshino, while Goki's children were housing pilgrims on Zenkizan, smaller mount in Kumano and one of the stations of the okugake shugyō, the most important Shugendō pilgrimage with 75 stations. At the time of writing the book (2006) there was still one branch of Goki's descendants housing pilgrims there, Gokisuke.
Finally, there is Ascetic Sign "Eighty Million Goma Boards". I've mentioned earlier that goma rituals are not only in Shugendō, but the great saitō goma are found only in this movement. The shape of altar in saitō goma is circular and they are performed outside of temple. The pic attached is this spellcard from StB. It couldn't be a full circle for gameplay reasons, but if talismans are taken as boards, then it is much closer to circle then any other shape used for other types of goma.
Moreover, Aya's comment:
She appeared to be training, so I took some pictures. Of course, I didn't bother her. I was only taking photos, after all.
and the stage taking place in Hakugyokurou's garden would point to the whole thing taking place outside.
Ran being Shugendō practitioner would, in my opinion, be a quite reasonable explanation of both her Buddhism-Taoism-Shinto syncretism and for some spellcards bearing heavy ties to the ascetic movement itself. She doesn't wear yamabushi outfit, but in honzahna school for instance those garments are used only during mountain pilgrimages, so there may have been other traditions that similarly didn't wear those all the time. Considering how only honzahna and tōzahna schools survived 1872-1945 period, perhaps there were some others, that have silently passed into fantasy? Or maybe it goes even further back, before 12th century in which Shugendō had reforms made by esoteric Buddhists? Back when it was much less structured, with the draw towards mountain asceticism being stories about powerful mystic, En no Ozunu? Who knows? The biggest problem is that Shugendō doesn't use shikigami or anything close to it, unless the general "beat spirit to make it beneficial to humans" would count. But with Ran being picked up after all those years, maybe there will be more clues to make this theory sound.
