Part of the Koyasan temple complex, the spiritual and physical center of Shingon Buddhism
If Shinto is very much concerned with the here and now, Buddhism is extremely occupied with things like the nature of reality, human perception of the world and itself, ethics and the afterlife. Buddhism is the second religion present in Japan, and arguably the one which is unambiguously a religion by any definition. However, rather than generally being seen as two competing entities, Buddhism and Shinto have over time become to complement each other. Shinto is concerned about this life, and Buddhism about the ultimate fate of the individual. In practice many Japanese ”live Shinto and die Buddhist”, and Buddhist institutions handle most of funerals. The two religions have not always had such a coexistence, and have at times been violently at odds with each other. The history of Japan has seen everything from near total Buddhist domination to warlords turning against powerful Buddhist organizations to persecution of Buddhism at the start of Meiji Restoration.
The birth and core ideas of Buddhism
Buddhism was founded by Siddharta Gautama, often simply called the Buddha. He is thought to have lived around the 5th century BCE in India. According to Buddhists, he was born a prince who was raised in a very sheltered environment. When he discovered how life outside of the palace had things like old age, disease and death, he became shaken and started to wonder if there was more to life. He renounced his nobility and became an ascetic hermit. The severe asceticism failed to bring him the enlightenment he sought and he renounced it too. He started to seek a path of moderation, realizes that deep meditation is the key and achieved enlightenment or awakening while meditating under a tree.
From this experience the central ideas of Buddhism started to formulate. They can be represented as follows: All things reincarnate into different forms in an endless cycle. Life is filled with ”suffering” or ”unsatisfactoriness” (dukha), a constant cycle of desire and disappointment. It's however possible to become enlightened and become awake to the true nature of reality, which leads to nirvana, the extinguishing of dukha and the termination of the cycle of death and rebirth. The true nature of reality is seen as ”emptiness”: there are no discrete things, only categories humans put on things, and everything comes into existence in a chain of codependent origination: there is no chair without trees or a carpenter, no trees without soil, water and sunlight, no carpenter without his parents or his tools or the food he eats...
Buddhist ethics
Unlike, Shinto, Buddhism is very much occupied with ethics. Buddhism is notable for featuring quite many numbered concepts as mnemonic devices for remembering it's teachings. The central teachings of Buddhism are thus often presented in the formula of ”four noble truths, eightfold path”. The four noble truths are as follows:
1) Life is suffering (dukha)
2) Suffering arises out of craving
3) Suffering can be stopped if craving is stopped
4) The way to extinguish craving (to reach nirvana) is to follow the eightfold path
This eightfold path then is as follows:
1) Right view (or wisdom)
2) Right intention (or motivation)
3) Right speech (in particular honest and kindness)
4) Right conduct
5) Right means of livelihood (not harmful to others)
6) Right sustained effort (to avoid evil thoughts)
7) Right mindfulness
8) Right concentration (or meditation)
This practice of the eightfold path is thought to promote self-examination and a spiritual life. While the list is numbered, it's not really an ordered list. All the elements are thought to be interwoven, and the eighth fold, meditation, is thought to be crucial. It's thought that meditation sustains the other efforts and brings matter into proper perspective. Sometimes it has even been presented by Buddhists that sustained meditation alone can lead to the adoption of the Buddhist ethical system.
Buddhists tend to be divided into lay people and monastics (sangha). While the various ethical guidelines are much stricter for the monastics and historically lay people were not expected to meditate, both groups are expected to adopt a baseline of five precepts. These precepts are:
1) Do not kill
2) Do not steal
3) Do not commit adultery
4) Do not lie
5) Do not take intoxicants
These precepts are complemented by four virtues to be cultivated: friendship, compassion, wishing happiness for others and equanimity.
The idea of upholding the ”three treasures” tends to be a central part of identity for most Buddhist groups. While the phrase is familiar to anyone who has played Undefined Fantastical Object, the three treasures are:
1) The Buddha, as an ideal model for each follower
2) The Dharma (teaching, universal truth or law)
3) The Sangha (the religious order, but also more broadly the Buddhist community)
As one can see from these lists, Buddhism is very fond of numbered mnemonic devices. There is one more which will finish this introduction into the fundamentals of Buddhist beliefs. The Buddhists believe that all beings are characterized by ”four marks”: They are:
1) Impermanence. Nothing lasts forever.
2) Suffering. All are subject to illness, aging and death.
3) No-Self. There is no substance that correlates to ”self” and true self-identity is beyond what one conceives it to be.
4) Nirvana. A state where suffering is extinguished, a state of equanimity achieved when liberated from the fetters of existence (samsara).
Buddhism in Japan
Buddhism spread to Japan via Korea and China. The broader East Asian form of Buddhism that spread to Japan is known as Mahayana (”Great Vessel”) Buddhism. The other large form of Buddhism is known as Theravada (”Council of Elders”), and is prevalent in South and Southeast Asia. While there are notable differences in the belief systems of different Mahyana sects, the big common one that separates from Theravada is the idea that anyone can become a Buddha. It's believed that everything has an original ”Buddha nature”, a kind of pure form of consciousness.
The introduction of Buddhism to Japan began in the 5th century, roughly a thousand years after the life of Siddharta Gautama. While the introduction of Buddhism was slow at first, it did eventually raise great interest. A prominent figure in the popularization of Buddhism was Prince Shotoku (574-622), who in our world vigorously furthered the Buddhist cause. Over time Buddhism would gain great influence and status and also start splintering into numerous smaller sects. Sometimes the sectarian process would be initiated by a monk visiting China to get the newest Buddhist scholarship, while sometimes it would begin from a desire to popularize Buddhism or to reform the practices.
The two sects of Japanese Buddhism which are of most relevance to Touhou are Shingon and Zen. Byakuren Hijiri, and by extension the members of the Myoren Temple, have been implied to be Shingon, but also stated to be Zen by ZUN. Whatever the case may be, I feel that both sects are worthy of an introduction. Shingon is a very interesting sect of Buddhism, and Zen has been immensely influential and has grown to be very popular in the west.
Shingon
Shingon Buddhism is a sect of esoteric Buddhism. In this context the esoteric refers to two things. First, it refers to the idea that the masters of Shingon Buddhism possess an unique understanding of Buddha's true message that can be transmitted only through oral tradition. Secondly, it refers to the use of ”three mysteries” of mudra (hand gestures), mantra (sacred utterances) and mandala (visual spiritual tools) . In essence, Shingon could be seen as a magical form of Buddhism. These magical techniques of mudra, mantra and mandala are meant to accelerate the process of enlightenment. The central aim of Shingon is to achieve ”Buddhahood in this very body”. Established by Kukai in 816, Shingon is one of the few surviving East Asian forms of esoteric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana Buddhism.
The lore connection that Byakuren has to Shingon is the fact that her brother, Myoren Hijiri, was probably a real member of Shingon Buddhism, or at the very least, the subject of tales written in the outside world of him. One of these tales features an unnamed Buddhist priestess who is worried about her brother, Myoren. In her dream, the priestess sees a vision of Daibutsu and a purple cloud alongside a mountain. One might remember one of Byakuren's spell cards, Omen of Purple Clouds, and wonder if her color scheme might be a reference to this story too. Purple is thought to be associated with spiritual growth and powers in general.
As Shingon heavily focuses on techniques one might label as ”magic”, it would also make sense as a background for someone who is a Buddhist magician as Byakuren Hijiri is. It's known that at least historically the Shingon Buddhists were involved in magical rituals which scope went beyond achieving enlightenment. They prayed for the health and safety of the emperors, performed acts of spiritual purification and protection and even prayed for the surrender of enemy nations during the Second World War!
Zen?
While there is nothing in particular to tie her to the sect, Zun has stated that Byakuren is a Zen Buddhist. Zen is a quite distinct sect of Buddhism that places heavy focus on meditation practice. Japanese Zen developed around the 12th century when figures like Myoan Eisai, Nanpo Shomyo and Dogen brought Chan Buddhist materials from China. Chan is essentially the Chinese root form of Zen, a school of Buddhism particularly heavily influenced by Taoist ideas and Taoist meditation practices.
Zen Buddhism has several very distinctive features. One of these is a particular form of sitting meditation known as zazen. It's closer to Taoist meditation practices than the more Indian-derived forms of other Buddhist sects. Some Zen lineages utilize paradoxical statements known as koan as focus of meditation. The purpose of meditating on koan is to offer insight into non-duality. Some lineages of Zen also make use of techniques coming from esoteric Buddhism. The extreme focus that Zen places on practice has lent itself to practically atheistic interpretations and partly explains its popularity, particularly outside of Japan.
There's ultimately very little to connect Byakuren to Zen lore or aesthetics wise. One has to wonder if it's a bit of Zun's famous forgetfulness and humor.
Myoren Temple and Buddhist representation in Touhou
Whatever the exact sect may be, the figures involved with the Myoren Temple are the most visible representatives of Buddhism in Touhou. Byakuren, the leader of the temple, has already been written about. Another prominent member of the temple is Shou Toramaru, who is very likely inspired by the Chougonsonshi temple. This particular temple takes care of tigers and is dedicated to Bishamonten. Shou is described as being a discipline of Bishamonten, and in a way outranks Byakuren. Her spellcards contain references to many Buddhist concepts, including the mythical weapon vajra, that serves as a metaphor for sudden enlightenment.
The Chougonsonshi temple is also a likely reason why Toyosatomimi no Miko's senkai ends up under the Myoren Temple. That particular temple is said to be founded by the historical Prince Shotoku, on whom Miko is based on. Another possibility is some kind of strange commentary on the origins of the Taoist-influenced East Asian Buddhism.
As for other members of the temple, it should be noted that Ichirin Kumoi's original garb is close to real-life attire of Buddhist nuns. The meme-worthy ”gyate gyate” that Kyoko repeats is from Heart Sutra, a very important Buddhist text. Nue's ability might be a reference to Buddhist ideas surrounding illusions, though such things are seen as negative things in Buddhist context.
Overall, the Myoren Temple idea of trying to bring Buddhism to the youkai is exceptionally well in line with the ideas of real-life Mahayana Buddhism, which includes basically all sects of Buddhism in East Asia. In Mahyana, it's thought that every single living thing, no matter how small, wretched or inert, is slowly trying to realize its Buddhahood. There is no demon too vile who wouldn't eventually get there. Therefore, if something like youkai did truly exist, there would no doubt be someone from Mahayana Buddhism who would try to bring Buddha's teachings to them in order to accelerate their process of enlightenment.
Buddhist syncreticism in Touhou
There are also references to syncretic forms of Buddhism in Touhou. Shinto and Buddhism share together a very long history, and besides co-existence and conflict there have also been cases of Shinto-Buddhist syncretism. Many of these practices were lost when Buddhism and Shinto were forcibly separated during the Meiji era. The forced separation of Shinto and Buddhism didn't entirely destroy such syncretism though. It survives in the Shugendo movement, which also incorporates Taoist and folk religious beliefs.
One of the traces of such syncretism in Touhou is Okina-sama, who is based on a syncretic Shinto-Buddhist deity worshipped by the once very powerful Tendai sect. She also contains references to a mix of other Buddhist and Shinto deities. These include the fierce dharma protector turned to a deity of prosperity Daikoku-sama and the Shinto kami of Big Dipper, Myoken Boshi-sama, who is thought to have taken part in the creation of the world.
While there are no direct references to Shugendo in Touhou (perhaps ZUN thinks it has yet to pass into fantasy?), one can find references to it in a bit of a surprising place. The historical depictions of Tengu often had them in garments associated with Shugendo practitioners as Tengu were seen as souls of fallen Buddhists – perhaps a jab at the Shugendo from purist Buddhists? This depiction survives in Touhou in the getas, hats and pompoms that the Tengu characters wear.
Hatate-san may not look like it, but even she traces some of her origins to Shugendo.
Other references to Buddhism in Touhou
There are also some other scattered references to Buddhism and Buddhist ideas in the game. For example, Narumi Yatadera is a Jizo statue and Eiki Shiki was such a statue before becoming the Supreme Judge of Paradise. These status are in fact statues of the Boddhisatva Ksitigarbha. It's believed that this Boddhisatva has the power to redeem beings from hell, and is often thought to be a protector of children.
Cherry Blossom very explicitly refers to the idea of Pure Land. It's a concept in certain Buddhist sects, a paradise-like realm where it's easier to achieve enlightenment. In Touhou, this term is used in a bit different way, as a place where the innate impurities of Earth don't exist. The Lunar Capital is another of these ”Pure Lands” in this sense.
Conclusion
Overall, while Touhou does not proselytize Buddhism in any way, ZUN appears to understand Buddhist ideas quite well, and he has been able to work them very effortlessly into his worldbuilding. Undefined Fantastical Object is almost like a Buddhist fable, detailing the misadventures of a protagonist motivated by anger and greed who discovers that the real treasure was the Three Treasures of Buddhism all along... Later print works feature a much more negative depiction of the Myoren Temple crew, but critiques of Buddhism have also been part of the history of Japan too. After all, there have been very real cases of violent coercion and corrupt practices. These should not be ignored either.
Whatever impression the depiction of Buddhism in Touhou leaves you with probably depends on how much you desire to cling to the events in Gensokyo and how much you desire to learn more. Byakuren might not be perfect, but there are surprisingly many who have been inspired to study and practice Buddhism by Touhou. Perhaps the magical, fantastic depiction found in Touhou carries a certain potency of it's own. I am reminded of the anecdote of an anon who ended up converting to Buddhism. Only after conversion he realized that ”gyate gyate” which he had been uttering for months was part of a mantra intended to awaken one to their Buddha nature.
And for all the secular mindfulness and borderline atheistic forms of Zen (which have their value!), the more magical forms of Buddhism have refused to pass into fantasy. The Shingon practitioners can still be found at the Koyasan temple complex, initiating those who can withstand the arduous process into their secrets. And if one can put faith into such things, it's said that Kukai is still there too, having never died, merely passing into a state of deep meditation.
Please "gyate gyate" mindfully.
